Hollywood in the global film market | Film Studies

Hollywood in the global film market | Film Studies When the average Friday night cinema-goer sits down to watch a film in this country they would most probably be waiting to see the latest Hollywood blockbuster projected onto the screen. This seems to have been the norm for decades now but it wasnt always the case. Cinema was born in France with the introduction of motion pictures from the Lumià ¨re brothers; Auguste and Louis. The first presentation of motion pictures and the Lumià ¨re Cinà ©matographe (a combined camera, printer and projector) was to the Society for the Promotion of Industry (Socià ©tà © dEncouragement a lindustrie Nationale) on March 22, 1895. Only one film was shown, Employees Leaving the Lumià ¨re Factory (La Sortie des usines Lumià ¨re), shot by Louis. It was projected, almost as an afterthought, following their lecture on advances in experimental colour photography. It was nine months later in the darkened rooms at the Grand Cafà © in Paris on December 28, 1895 that the first exhibition of moving image s was opened to a paying, European audience. Included on the playbill were The Arrival of the Train (LArrivà ©e dun train à   la Ciotat), Babys Meal (Repas de Bà ©bà ©) and The Sprayer Sprayed (LArroseur et arrosà ©e). However, it wasnt long before cinema became international when the Americans tried their hand at making movies. In the period between the Lumieres first private and public exhibitions, two brothers, Otway and Gray Latham, screened the very first film to the paying public; Young Griffo versus Battling Charles Barnett, an impressive eight minute reel of a boxing match between the titular Griffo and Barnett. Their small storefront theatre in Broadway, New York became the first dedicated cinema. Over the next twenty years the number of filmmakers and films being made increased. This period of frantic filmmaking became known as the Silent Era. All over the United States movies were being shown at ‘Nickelodeons; shops that had been transformed into exhibition areas where films were projected onto screens, walls or hanging sheets. This was not just an American phenomenon; here in the UK over 3000 cinemas had opened by 1917. The number of important films of this era included Georges Mà ©lià ¨s 1902 film A Trip to the Moon (Le Voyage dans la lune) based on Jules Vernes novel From the Earth to the Moon (De la Terre à   la Lune) that is recognised as being the first science fiction movie; Edwin S. Porters 1903 movie The Great Train Robbery that introduced complex narrative structure it its editing techniques; and D.W. Griffiths 1915 feature The Birth of a Nation which grossed $10 million at the box office. The next logical step for this new industry was to integrate sound with the images. In 1927 Warner Brothers released The Jazz Singer, the first ‘talkie feature film to be widely distributed. This invention practically caused the death of the Silent Era as audiences demanded sound with their films and heralded the ‘Golden Age of cinema. But once again it was not an industry completely dominated by Hollywood. The French idea of commercial movie houses became the international model, and entrepreneurs scurried to build impressive movie houses across North America and Europe including theatres to seat up to 5,000 people, rather than relying on the storefront Nickelodeons from the turn of the century. Birmingham born businessman Oscar Deutsch opened his first Odeon cinema in the UK in Perry Barr, Birmingham in 1920. By 1930 the Odeon was a household name and to this day there is still an Odeon in the prime location of British cinema exhibition, Leicester Square. Since the Second World War (1939 1945) the dominance of Hollywood as the motion picture production capital of the world has been virtually unchallenged. With the exception of the Indian Film Industry, lovingly named ‘Bollywood, there has not been a notable challenger to Hollywoods crown. There have been moments when a possible contender to the throne has emerged from within Europe or the UK, bringing with it a new style of filmmaking, a new school of thought or an embarrassing outburst at an awards ceremony; â€Å"The British are coming!† In the last sixty years there have been several European film movements that have demonstrated that there is an alternative to the Hollywood system, however they have not managed to topple the system and in some cases have been neatly integrated and repackaged into the Hollywood blockbuster. In this essay I shall look at the stranglehold that Hollywood seems to possess over the global film market and contrast it to the state of the European film industries and in particular to the British film industry. I shall emphasis the importance of European and British films, filmmakers and movements and how they relate to the Hollywood system. Being that this is such a large topic area I shall focus on how Hollywood has figuratively grown into a dragon and that the sporadic attempts at slaying it by European ‘knights in shining armour more often than not end up feeding it and making it stronger. I shall try to determine how influential non-Hollywood films are on Hollywood, and vice versa. I also intend to examine how the British film industry has fared since the end of the Second World War against such stiff competition from the other side of the Atlantic; and what lies ahead in the not too distant future. For the purposes of this essay I shall refer to the mainstream American film industry as ‘Hollywood; I am not saying that Hollywood ‘is the American film industry as there are a number of independent filmmakers producing and releasing feature films that frequently make box office profits, most notably Miramax, but for this essay I shall be focusing purely on the Hollywood system. The Hollywood as we know it today began in earnest in the 1910s when major producers such as Carl Laemmle, William Fox, Adolph Zukor and Marcus Loew decided to disassociate from the Film Trust based in New York (a ‘trust of the ten leading American and European producers of movies and manufacturers of cameras and equipment set up in 1908 that would tax filmmakers into using their patents to allow the film to be officially ‘legal) and venture into a more independent, West coast filmmaking structure in the all-year sunshine of California. This departure from the Trust afforded the producers to shoot feature films instead of the normal short one or two ‘reelers (so named after the length of the reel of film used to shoot it). These independents introduced a vertically integrated system that eventually covered production, distribution and exhibition. The Hollywood studio system was born and names such as Paramount (formerly Adolph Zukors Famous Players-Lasky), Fox, Warn er Brothers, Universal (formerly Carl Laemmles Independent Motion Picture Company), Columbia, Universal Artists and Marcus Loews MGM blossomed. According to Douglas Gomery: â€Å"†¦the average cost for Hollywood features of the day rarely ranged beyond $500,000, expanding distribution across the globe meant revenues regularly topped $1,000,000.† (Nowell-Smith 48). This was a massive leap in the twenty years from a time when a film of a train approaching a railway station was shown to the general public. Hollywood understood that the needs and demands of the masses had become more sophisticated over the short period of time that was cinemas infancy. As such the producers looked towards popular pulp fiction novels, plays and in particular the newly invented genre of the Western to entertain their audiences. In 1922 the major Hollywood companies formed the Motion Picture Producers and Distribution Association of America (MPPDA) to assist in the promotion and distribution of films worldwide. This was run by a former Republican politician, William H. Hays. His work for the MPDDA was closely linked with the US State Department and allowed Hollywood to dominate the UK, Canada, Australia, Europe (except Germany and the Soviet Union), South America, Central America and the Caribbean. This world domination looked set to continue until the Wall Street Crash in 1929. Even though Hollywood had originally distanced itself from New York, financial backing from the East coast was needed to fund the studios. As such the Depression that followed the stock market crash proved a difficult time for Hollywood, though not immediately as the movie industry enjoyed its best year in 1930 as studio profits reached record levels. However, between 1930 and 1933 theatre admissions fell from 90 million per week to 60 million, gross industry revenues fell from $730 million to about $480 million, and combined studio profits of $52 million became net losses of some $55 million. (Nowell-Smith 220). However it wasnt all doom and gloom. As the ‘Big Five of Paramount, RKO, Warner Bros, Fox and MGM had to reorganise their financial structure (the integration of owning their own cinemas was almost bankrupting them), the ‘major minor studios of Columbia, Universal and United Artists were enjoying the freedom of only being production and distribution companies; therefore having the freedom to continue producing high quality films without the noose of the exhibition property around their necks. In fact it was in this period that the minor studios were producing ‘B-movies; factory-produced low cost, low risk genre films usually made up of cowboys, gangsters or horror (for example; South of the Rio Grande Columbia 1932, Afraid to Talk Universal 1932, and White Zombie United Artists 1932). This ability to adapt to the market is an early demonstration of why Hollywood is still the market leader in feature films. From these early years it was evident that the studio system was going to be at the forefront of film production. The 1930s and 1940s were to prove to be the beginning of the Golden Age of Hollywood cinema with the introduction of colour films and the release of such popular films as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Disney 1936), The Adventures of Robin Hood (Warner Bros 1938), Gone with the Wind (MGM 1939), The Wizard of Oz (MGM 1939), and Citizen Kane (RKO 1941). When the United States entered the Second World War in 1941 the Hollywood machine was utilised by the government to produce propaganda films for the American public. Within one year of the attack on Pearl Harbour, nearly one third of Hollywoods feature films were war related, as were the vast majority of its newsreels and documentaries (Nowell-Smith 234). Yet again Hollywood was flexible enough to mee t the demands of the public and due to the nature of the audiences at home and most notably abroad (the UK), Hollywoods foreign revenues reached record levels. Like the Depression before it, even the Second World War could not stop Hollywood. The next period of Hollywood cinema came in the 1960s and continues today. This is regularly referred to as Modern Cinema and saw the power of the studios sway towards the director (often regarded as the auteur). In his book Easy Riders, Raging Bulls author Peter Biskind highlights Arthur Penns Bonnie and Clyde (Warner Bros 1967) as the first of the new breed of films, â€Å"Bonnie and Clyde was a movement movie; like The Graduate, young audiences recognized that it was ‘theirs† (Biskind 49). This ‘new Hollywood saw new players attract new audiences. The new kids on the block included George Lucas (THX 1138, American Graffiti, Star Wars), Steven Spielberg (Jaws, ET, Jurassic Park), Martin Scorsese (Mean Streets, Raging Bull, The Aviator) and Francis Ford Coppola (The Godfather, Apocalypse Now, Dracula). The power of the director was affirmed when George Lucass 1977 film Star Wars was released and confirmed that a single film could earn its studio huge profits and t urn a poor year into a very successful one. Star Wars had a production budget of around $13 million (imdb.com) and has (as of the end of June 2005) grossed nearly $798 million. (thenumbers.com) While the American film industry had always looked abroad for sources of revenue, the global focus of Hollywood was also amplified in this period. Overseas theatrical and video markets exploded during the second half of 1980s; between 1984 and 1986, Hollywoods European exports alone jumped 225 percent to reach $561 million annually. In some major European markets, Hollywood movies accounted for 45-65 percent of total box-office receipts. (Herman 39) In fact, according to The Numbers (a free resource for industry professionals to track business information on movies) out of the top 100 all-time highest grossing movies worldwide, only one movie was made before the period of Modern Hollywood Cinema (Gone with the Wind which has grossed $350 million dollars since its release in 1939). (thenumbers .com) With the top two films grossing $2,000 million having been released in 1997 (James Camerons Titanic) and 2003 (Peter Jacksons third instalment in the Lord of the Rings trilogy, The Return of the King) it is obvious that the Hollywood machine still manages to churn out money-making productions. So what is it that keeps Hollywood head and shoulders above other national film industries? In his essay Reconceptualizing National Cinema/s, Stephen Crofts points out that there are seven varieties of ‘national cinema as licensed by the political, economic and cultural rà ©gimes of different nation-states: â€Å"Cinemas which differ from Hollywood, but do not compete directly, by targeting a distinct, specialist market sector; Those which differ, do not compete directly but do directly critique Hollywood; European and Third World entertainment cinemas which struggle against Hollywood with limited or no success; Cinemas which ignore Hollywood, an accomplishment managed by a few; Anglophone cinemas which try to beat Hollywood at its own game; Cinemas which work within a wholly state-controlled and often state-subsidized industry; and Regional or national cinemas whose culture and/or language take their distance from the nation-states which enclose them.† Crofts 50) He ar gues that Hollywood can not be seen as a national cinema due to its trans-national appeal. Thomas Elsaesser adds that Hollywood is totally other to national cinema it is difficult to maintain because so much of any nations film culture is implicitly Hollywood. (Elsaesser 166). This is echoed in the words of Edward Buscombe who states that at times Hollywood appears to be†¦ no longer a national cinema but the cinema (Buscombe 141) These views propel the ideology that Hollywood is the word people use to describe popular cinema. As Crofts identified, there are a number of ways in which non-Hollywood cinema has tried to challenge (or indeed avoid confrontation) the American system. The fifth example; ‘Anglophone cinemas which try to beat Hollywood at its own game best represents how the British film industry tried to challenge the giant that is Hollywood (with varying results). The European film industries would fall into the third and seventh categories; ‘European and Third World entertainment cinemas which struggle against Hollywood with limited or no success; and ‘Regional or national cinemas whose culture and/or language take their distance from the nation-states which enclose them. Due to the many different European languages the latter example is perhaps the most relevant but at the same time admits defeat in attempting to export the film to the United States. However, this is not to say that Hollywood has not had to adapt to remain the world leader. The early 1980s saw a dramatic drop in box office receipts. The beginning of the decade saw a 9% drop in tickets sold nationwide in American cinemas when only 1,022 million were sold. This figure got worse in 1986 when just over 1,017 million tickets were sold (boxofficemojo.com) (compared to over 4,500 million ticket sales in 1930). The home video market had certainly dented theatrical sales but Hollywood would always recoup somehow. The immediate problem was the cost of keeping cinemas o pen; a similar situation to the post Depression period of the 1930s. Another financial reshuffle was in order. The six major Hollywood film studios were now part of conglomerates. Gulf Western (Paramounts parent company) also owned Madison Square Gardens, Desilu, Simon and Schuster, and Paramount Pictures Television. Yet, only 11% of Gulf Westerns revenues were derived from entertainment industry holdings and just 4% from Paramount Pictures in 1981. That same year, United Artists was bringing only 12% of the revenues in for Transamerica, Universal represented 22% of MCAs income, and Warner Bros. accounted for 24% of Warner Communications revenue. (Lewis 86). However, by 1989, the entertainment division of Gulf Western, led by Paramount Pictures, accounted for over 50% of Gulf Westerns yearly income during a year in which Paramount had only fourteen releases and a 13.8% share of the market thanks to the success of Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade ($197 million domestic box office), (the-numbers.com) demonstrating again just how important a single film had become by the end of the 1980s. These blockbusters were to save Hollywood and allow it to grow stronger, and in 2002 ticket sales were over the 1,523 million mark which was the highest figure for over twenty years. It is practically impossible to pinpoint a single film that best demonstrates how the Hollywood system works. I have chosen to examine three different movies from three different periods of its history to illustrate how Hollywood evolves; Intolerance (1916), Singin in the Rain (1952) and The Matrix (1999). D.W. Griffith directed over 500 films during his career, most of them were shorts produced between 1908 and 1914. In 1915 he directed Birth of a Nation, a film that â€Å"†¦established him as one of the first truly great film directors, able to balance scale with intimate, impassioned storytelling† (Falk 11) but the film also has its critics: â€Å"Hopefully the only film in movie history to project in its publicity the Ku Klux Klan as the heroic defenders of Christian civilization† (Shiach 12). Two years later he directed Intolerance. Intolerance is, in my opinion, a better example of a Hollywood film than the overtly racist Birth of a Nation. Its narrative structure is interwoven with four different stories from four different periods in history each telling their own stories of intolerance, be it through religion or society. This storytelling device of jumping from one story to another allowed Griffith to direct the film at a speed that would keep the audiences enthralled to the very last reel. Unfortunately it failed at the box office. The production budget was over three and half times than that of Birth of a Nation and the box office did not return this. The lavish sets and numerous extras that were brought in by Griffith to turn this into a spectacle ended up leading to its financial failure. This was an early lesson to the studios that throwing a lot of money at a production did not necessarily mean that it was going to be successful. In hindsight this film stands up well; the crowd scenes are epic, so to the Babylon sets and the innovative use of camera angles and cross-cut editing techniques. Griffith formed United Artists with Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, William S. Hart and Mary Pickford in 1919, cementing his position as a major player in the early Hollywood years. The year 1952 saw the highest grossing film in America to be the documentary This is Cinerama showcasing the possibilities of Cinerama; a widescreen system that employed stereophonic sound and used three cameras and three projectors to cover a huge curved screen. Further down the list was Stanley Donen and Gene Kellys musical Singin in the Rain (MGM 1952). Not only does the film include perhaps one of the most memorable scenes in Hollywood history (the song and dance of the title) but also one of the first big budget films to poke fun at its own industry. The story takes place during the transition from silent film into ‘talking pictures and highlights some of the problems that arose for all the major studios. Roger Ebert, film critic for the Chicago Sun-Times proudly states that â€Å"Singin in the Rain has been voted one of the greatest films of all time in international critics polls, and is routinely called the greatest of all the Hollywood musicals. I dont think theres an y doubt about that. There are other contenders†¦ but Singin in the Rain comes first because it is not only from Hollywood, it is about Hollywood.† (Ebert). The film was rushed through by MGM (the studio that produced most of the lavish musicals) after the success of 1951s An American in Paris and as such the film was an original screenplay and Donen and Kelly were freed from the constraints of adapting a stage musical, being able to develop something completely from scratch. This freedom is present on screen and, like the previous example Intolerance has won more fans in the years after its release than the audiences at the time. Today the musical is a rare sight to emerge from Hollywood. It is seen as an expensive genre that has served its time. There have been a few exceptions like Baz Luhrmanns Moulin Rouge (20th Century Fox 2001) and Rob Marshalls Chicago (Miramax 2002) but I cannot see any Hollywood studio spending money on this genre like MGM did in the Golden Age. Brothers Andy and Larry Wachowski directed the science fiction action movie The Matrix in 1999. Labeled by some as a â€Å"cult classic† (Gottlieb), I find it hard to agree that a film that has grossed over $450 million (thenumbers.com) worldwide should be called a ‘cult. Set sometime in the near future the film taps into a common paranoia that all is not as it seems. Hollywood released this film, with its $65 million (thenumbers.com) production budget knowing that the recent trend of Asian kung-fu movies were entertaining the young generation like Hark Tsuis 1991 film Once Upon a Time in China (Wong Fei-hung) or Woo-ping Yuens 1993 film Iron Monkey (Siunin Wong Fei-hung tsi titmalau). This film was also used in an extensive advertising campaign to promote the sales of DVDs; a figure of $20 million was spent on prints and advertising costs. With the combination of kung-fu, a storyline focusing on paranoia and special effects never seen before in a major blockbuster; it w ould not be cynical to believe that Hollywood thought of The Matrix as their ticket into the new millennium. The British film industry has historically always been the poorer cousin to Hollywood, or as Robert Murphy suggests, â€Å"British cinema has been despised and disparaged for much of its existence† (Murphy 5). While Hollywood was experimenting with and developing the dramatic narrative of feature films in the early 1910s, Britain did not realise the potential of the longer film format; and one of the only companys releasing fictional drama, albeit single reel films, was Hepworth who produced films such as Rescued by Rover (1905), Faust (1911) and A Fishermans Love Story (1912). As late as 1925 Joseph Schenck commented on the inferiority of British cinema saying that â€Å"You have no personalities to put on the screen. The stage actors and actresses are no good on the screen. Your effects are no good, and you do not spend nearly so much money.† (Schenck). This statement is eerily poignant eighty years after he said it. In fact as early as 1907 Hollywood was acting swift er than Britain in developing the cinematic world by exploiting British cultural heritage when the Selig Polyscope Company produced the one reel short A Tale of Two Cities based on Charles Dickens novel. Four years later Vitagraph remade the film as a thirty minute short in 1911. In fact Hollywood then remade the film six years after that when Fox produced A Tale of Two Cities in 1917. It wasnt until W. Courteney Rowden directed the one reel film of the same title that Britain finally had its own film version of the novel in 1922. And it wasnt until Ralph Thomas directed A Tale of Two Cities (Rank 1958) that Britain had its very own feature film of the novel; the sixth remake since the original 1907 film. Even though the British film industry was slow to accept the possibilities offered by the dramatic narrative of feature film there were some important figures to emerge. Alfred Hitchcock directed his first completed feature film in 1925 with the crime drama The Pleasure Garden, having already made a name for himself as a writer on Graham Cutts Woman to Woman (1923). He followed that up with a number of groundbreaking films including The Lodger (Gainsborough Pictures 1927), his first talking movie Blackmail (BIP 1929), and Jamaica Inn (Mayflower 1939); his final film in Britain before Hollywood producer David O. Selznick sent for him from Hollywood. At a time when Hollywood was going from strength to strength with the help of the MPPDA, Britain was finding that too many American imports were saturating the home industry; $165 million revenue was made for Hollywood by the overseas British market. (Nowell-Smith 58). The Films Act of 1927 set a quota on imported movies that â€Å"was pr ogressive, beginning at 5 percent and rising to 20 percent in ten years time.† (Balio 469). This should have been a period in which Britain could progress both in quality and quantity of film production as the Act was meant to â€Å"open up the market for ‘long (over 3,000 feet in length) British films by stipulating that 7.5 per cent of films acquired by film renters each year had to be British and 5 per cent of those shown by exhibitors also had to be of British origin, both percentages rising to 20 by 1935 and remaining at that level until 1938 when the Act expired.† (Street 10). In reality it allowed a number of cheap productions, or â€Å"quota quickies† (Balio 469) to be made that did more harm than good for the British film industry. However, the Act allowed Britain to emulate the American system of vertical integration with companies able to produce, distribute and exhibit its own films; this introduced The Associated British Picture Corporation and the Gaumont British Picture Corporation. The British film movement enjoyed a period of producing a number of fine films (most notably by Alfred Hitchcock) that included Alexander Kordas period drama The Private Life of Henry VIII (London Film Productions 1933), Marcel Varnels comedy starring Will Hay, Oh, Mr. Porter! (Gainsborough 1937), and Sam Woods drama Goodbye Mr. Chips (MGM 1939). When the Second World War broke out in 1939 Britain had to focus on the war effort; just as what was to happen in Hollywood, the films produced up to the end of the war were predominantly propaganda films. Some of the greatest filmmakers in British cinema were to come to the publics attention during the war; directors such as Michael Powell (The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp 1943), David Lean (In Which We Serve 1942), Thorold Dickinson (Next of Kin 1943) and Carol Reed (The Way Ahead 1944) exploded onto the scene. The 1940s were an exciting time for the British film industry with box office admissions peaking at 1,635 million in 1946 (Sparos 14) and companies such as the Rank Organisation began to expand, with a massive screen empire embracing the Gaumont British company; this included the Gainsborough Studios, the Odeon cinema circuit and Pinewood and Denham studios. The famous Ealing Studio, under Michael Balcon, secured its place in film history with the production of comedies such as Passport to Pimlico, Whisky Galore and Kind Hearts and Coronets, all made in 1949. Two years earlier Balcon founded the British Film Academy in a hotel suite at the Hyde Park Hotel on the 16 April 19 47. This was later to become BAFTA (British Academy of Film and Television Arts). Running parallel to the Ealing comedies was the movement of social reality films, commonly referred to as ‘kitchen sink dramas but often named the New Wave. At a time when the British public was feeling the burden of the aftermath of the war with rationing and high unemployment, there was a need for film to reflect the lives of the masses. One of the first major forays into this genre was produced by Filippo Del Giudice. Del Giudice was an Italian lawyer who left his native fascist Italy for London in 1932 and helped set up Two Cities Films in 1937. In the 1950 film Chance of a Lifetime directed by Bernard Miles, the story focuses on trade unionism and what stage the co-operative movement had reached in 1950, a few years after the reforming Labour government was elected but months before the re-election of Winston Churchill; showing that the country was oscillating between Socialism and Conservatism. Miless intelligent script was even-handed in its approach to these issues and also gave insights into the class system of the time yet did not go so far as to support the unions at the time. Alan Wood, biographer of Rank, charged the film with being â€Å"a crude form of anti-Socialist propaganda† (Wood 245). Even though critics felt the film did not go far enough into the class struggle it opened the doors for directors to comment on such issues as unemployment and the working classes. In earlier British films we had seen the working class as ‘good and decent supporting roles to the more noble upper classes (the most obvious analogy would be in the wartime Navy film where the working class would be below deck powering the ship and the upper classes above deck steering its course). Here we saw their lives at the centre of the action in great detail, told to the audience in an everyday household situation; hence the kitchen sink tag. We see events through the emotional journeys of these characters. Films like Jack Claytons Room at the Top (Remus 1 959) painted their protagonists to show that they had moved on from the hero at Normandy to an average, everyday person who wanted to make the most of their life and somehow try to improve their social position. This did not have to be solely represented in social realism, comedy crossed over as well. In John Boultings comedy Im Alright Jack (British Lion 1959) the class divide is made perfectly evident in the dispute between the workers and the owners of a factory; with the inclusion of Peter Sellers trouble-making union representative thrown in for good measure. At last the British film industry, as had the French and Italians, were producing films with a strong political and artistic background of their own that they would develop and progress into the 1960s. However, this particular notion of reality is much debated and is a problem when looking at whether film is â€Å"a product of society or that of an ideology of one director or author.† (Murphy 146) These New Wave films represented an â€Å"extremely dynamic, but short lived, period of film-making.† (Nowell-Smith 605). By 1963 London became the party capital of the world and the notoriety of ‘Swinging London and its Soho clubs and cinemas was in complete contrast to the gritty social dramas of the late 1950s. Suddenly British culture was internationally recognised. With the mass popularity of The Beatles in music, Mary Kwant in fashion and David Hockney in art people were looking towards Britain to produce films that captured the spirit of the moment: The 1960s witnessed a revitalisation of British Cinema and the emergence of a flourishing and diverse film culture after what was widely perceived to be the doldrums era of the 1950s.† (Moore-Gilbert 218). People demanded films that were not as ‘angry as the previous decade but celebrated the new possibility of social freedom. Unfortunately the money was not immediately available from British financiers and it was Hollywood that came to the rescue. The commercially successful Tom Jones, directed by Tony Richardson in 1963 was backed by United Artists and a number of American studios began investing heavily in British cinema. It is ironic that just as Hollywood saw the possibilities of exploiting British culture at the turn of the century, they were equally as deft to jump on the original ‘Cool Britannia bandwagon; leaving British investors to miss out all over again. United Artists also saw a lucrative business opportunity in Ian Flemings charismatic character James Bond. With the backing of United Artists, Terence Youngs 1963 film Dr. No, the first official What Is a GPS How Does It Work? What Is a GPS How Does It Work? Introduction to GPS The GPS also known as Global Positioning System is a global navigation system that runs on satellites that are active 24/7 (Library Of Congress, 2011). Development of the GPS was initially started by the US for military purposes; they would guide their troops and navigate them away from danger or would use this to launch missiles on a targeted area. Only recently during the early 2000s been the GPS released to the public by the US and made it free to access to anyone that owns a GPS receiver. Due to its various uses and availability the GPS started to gain popularity amongst people, in fact it has also helped in shaping the world into what it is today. The GPS system has become global and massive. It is used in most of our vehicles and smart phones to get us around its main purpose is to guide us to our location when we are lost, or for looking up a location. Like smart phones and email, this technology has become a key part of our modern day society. It has become a useful tool in our lives that we now have started to depend upon. GPS has replaced maps and has become the key tool of navigation. GPS is now also used in games and other application such as Facebook. GPS system works via detecting signals from GPS satellites located in space (Gray, 2012). The GPS system detects these signals via a GPS receiver (Bertagna, 2010). The GPS receiver detects the radio waves from satellites and then tries to find your location by calculating the time it took for the signal to reach the receiver. After calculating the time it took, it determines the location of the satellite and then determines how far it is from the satellite. By using trilateration it then calculates your location. Trilateration is a mathematical process which uses circles and triangles to calculate distance and area of a place. Common uses of GPS GPS has become a part of our daily lives ever since the US government released it to the public, our everyday devices have been equipped with GPS technology to assist us and enhance our experience (Saha, 2014) (Fortenberry, 2016). Everyday devices such as smartphones, tablets, vehicles and even packages we buy online have a small tracking device fitted in that constantly tracks its location, keeping the customer updated every minute. In fact, aeroplanes nowadays require a GPS tracker, which assists pilots in figuring out the route to their destination mid-air. This technology also helps control rooms in airports keep track of the aeroplanes current location. In fact, even passengers can view their current locations inflight through the entertainment system. Its not just aeroplanes that have inaugurated this technology but most of the vehicles being manufactured today come with a built in GPS system which helps drivers in setting a location and discovering the fastest way to reach it (Horban, 2009). This built in GPS technology also assists in tracking down stolen vehicles, which helps create a decline in car theft and gives a strong sense of security to the customer. The following graph taken from Rewire Security gives graphical evidence of a decline in car theft due to the implementation of a GPS system providing better and improved security. (Trading, 2014) Increase in GPS usage between teenagers Since GPS is now completely open for use to the public, many companies have started to develop softwares that utilize the GPS system. Most GPS softwares are found in mobile app stores these days since mobile phones are a common GPS using device. Moreover, since teenagers are often the age group that uses smartphones the most, quite a lot of the GPS apps are designed with the purpose of entertainment, which led to a huge rise of teenagers getting involved with such entertainment based apps. Entertainment apps which are booming between teenagers are mostly game or dating related (Collier, 2012) . Lets take the example of Pokà ©mon Go that came out quite recently, that game was a massive success due to the fact that it involved players leaving their house and going around different locations capturing Pokà ©mons. Pokà ©mon Gos main feature involved using a GPS tracker to track the players location as he would travel certain distances and to different areas. Pokà ©mon Go has also use d the GPS system to mark important landmarks as Pokà ©stops where players can buy items by using their points. This would not be possible without GPS technology. Whats important to consider here is how such a simple concept became very popular and addictive between teenagers, it is intriguing how a simple system that was used initially solely for the purpose of navigation has now turned into a means of entertainment. GPS systems are more often used by older teens in comparison to younger teens since parents do not give younger teens the freedom of roaming around the city since it is not safe for a child to roam around the city without parent supervision. Older teenagers however, tend to have a drivers license or some other means of transport and a lot of independence. Older teens tend to be given a lot more freedom in most parts of the world. Moreover, they often have to go to multiple places such as university, college, library and at times even their part time jobs. However, quite a lot of issues have appeared at the hands of GPS apps. Such as teens being addicted to the game Pokà ©mon Go and not caring about their own safety and walking around dangerous places. Moreover, GPS systems have also been adopted by dating apps now which has caused a lot of distress among parents. There has also been malpractice of the GPS apps at the hands of parents too. Some parents install apps which can allow them to track the location of their children via their childrens phone. This is an act of intruding a persons personal privacy. Due to how GPS trackers have various different uses, we have certain situations where we begin to question whether its really ethical to use such powerful technology in the way we have, which leads to social and ethical concerns being raised.

The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 :: American America History

The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 The debate of the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 revealed bitter controversies on a number of issues. Most of the controversies had, however, arose even before these acts; as far back as the penning of the Constitution. The writers of the Constitution knew that as time proceeded, the needs and demands of the nation and of the people would change, leading to controversy. By not assigning specific powers to specific groups/parties, governments, they unintentionally created a vast problem in the years to come. Subsequently following the ratification of the constitution, two leading groups formed; the Federalists and the Antifederalists, each believing in exact opposite interpretations of the Constitution. The Federalist Party was headed by the newly appointed Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, who thought the interpretation of the Constitution should be very loose. Hamilton believed the Constitution encompassed powers other than those authorized or enumerated. These hidden powers, claimed Hamilton, were implied powers. Hamilton stated it would be essential that the federal government should gain control over any later added account to the nation. Significantly, Hamilton aspired to put these implied powers to use in requisition to build a powerful and domineering central government. In opposition to Hamilton?s Federalist Party, Jefferson who believed in strict interpretation of the Constitution. Jefferson anticipated that everything should be done through strict evaluation and a laws should abide by what is written. Although Jefferson was not a Federalist, he was also not an Antifederalist; he was a Democratic-Republican, a composite of the two. Jefferson vindicated that all powers not enumerated by the Constitution are obtained by the States. Issues between the two groups lead to the imperative question: should a strong central government be established or should each individual state have control? The attacks of the succeeding debate and public scurrility led to the Sedition Act. This act prohibited intermingling and conspiracy against the America government and the correspondence of scandalous and malicious writings against the government or its officials, under penalty of a fine or imprisonment. Succeeding the Sedition Act, the Republicans turned to the stat es arguing that federal government had strode past their powers; the powers delegated to it by the states through the Constitution. Therefore the states acquired the right to repeal the act. Another issue was what to do about the problem of immigration that rapidly increased after the Revolution.

Kiffe Kiffe Tomorrow: Hope and Dreams in a Bi-Cultural Identity

The dilemma of having a bi-cultural identity has oftentimes been neglected as immigrants’ voices have often occupied a marginalized position in mainstream media and literature that mirrors their position at the margins of society. In Kiffe Kiffe Tomorrow, author Faiza Guene gives voice to Arab-French immigrants through the character of Doria and allows her readers a glimpse of Parisian life as viewed from the perspective of someone who desperately wants to be a part of it but is kept an outsider by her ethnicity.More importantly, Kiffe Kiffe Tomorrow not only illuminates the hardship confronting the children of immigrants as they are caught in between cultures that often clash with each other but also the hope and dreams of better lives that individuals coping with bi-cultural identities nurture in order to survive, often taking and using the best from both worlds available to them as an inspiration to dream of better things.Doria’s story shows the painful experience of growing up in-between cultures as a Moroccan living in the projects of Paris and her struggle to cope with societal and cultural expectations as well as with marginalization. Born and raised in poverty by an immigrant Moroccan family, Doria has to contend with a variety of issues that mirror the problems faced by immigrants everywhere. She shamelessly reveals her bitterness about having to depend on food stamps and cheap housing from the French government although her mother already works long hours to earn a living.As a consequence of her difficulty with fitting into the mainstream French culture, Doria suffers from problems at school and withdraws from others in her immediate environment. Instead she feels most close to Hamoudi, a neighbor and drug dealer, who has known her since she was little and whom, perhaps in her view, she shares a commonality as a social outcast.Although she is regularly visited by a social worker to help her handle her problems, she develops feelings of r esentment for social workers and psychologists whom she thinks are insincere in their efforts to help them. This stems from her opinion that these people cannot truly empathize with the immigrants’ problems given the privileged position accorded to them by their pure French identities. Another source of bitterness for Doria is her gender, which she thinks is the reason why her father left her and her mother since the Moroccan culture places a premium on having a son.It is therefore not hard to imagine the roots of Doria’s hostility towards the world. Doria is doubly stigmatized by her ethnic identity as an Arab and by the impoverished condition of her family. For instance, she pities her illiterate mother whose accent is always being made fun of, a reflection of how the mainstream culture tends to look down on cultural minorities such as Arabs and on other cultures in general.On the other hand, Doria is depressed by the fact that the good Parisian life remains distant to her and her mother as illustrated by their inability to see the Eiffel Tower despite its proximity to their home, or by the fact that they cannot afford a real Levi’s jeans unlike her classmates. As such, Doria resorts to imagination, sarcasm, and even feigning autism to ease her feelings of alienation from affluent Parisian lifestyles.It is clear, though, that Doria has absorbed the value system of Parisian culture. In one of her accounts, for instance, she makes the observation that `waxing hurts, and if you hurt somebody it shows a lack of respect,† a comment that shows her knowledge of French women’s beauty regimen. She also sees the television as the â€Å"poor man’s Koran,† and even bases her fantasies and imaginings on the realities depicted in the television.At the same time, she invents a dream life based on both her Morrocan and French value systems to draw the Parisian life as she perceives it to be in her attempt to bridge the gap bet ween her dream and current reality. It is these dreams of leaving the projects and building a better life for herself and her mother that sustains Doria although she is painfully aware that for people like her these may remain out of reach.Thus, beneath her pessimistic and sarcastic tone, and even the vengeful characteristic of her imaginings, Doria desperately wants to overcome her bitterness towards her circumstances with her recognition of her difficulties as experiences to learn from. She is therefore brought to tears when Hamoudi states the phrase Kiffe Kiffe Tomorrow as it represents a hopeful view that things are always getting better.Towards the end of the story Doria and her mother’s situation do not necessarily change for the better or even change at all, but this is exactly what Doria’s story aims to point out to its readers, that despite the hardships and the seeming inability of people like them to rise up from their marginal position, they will always dra w hope from knowing that tomorrow things will not be the same and there will be better times ahead of them.

Characteristics of Adults and Young People as Learners

The Characteristics of adults and young people as learners In this article we will consider the characteristics of young people and adults as learners. We will touch on the three main theories of teaching, identify and expand on three factors that have been identified as motivating adult learners and which the savvy teacher can use to increase the motivation of the learner. We will briefly consider five barriers that can affect a learner’s participation and or learning, looking at three of them in more detail together with some apt and practical support strategies to assist the learner and finally consider and outline the differences between pedagogical and andragogical models of learning. Three main theories of teaching A)†¦show more content†¦Ã¯Æ'Ëœ Accessibility. The college / centre should ensure that staff receive training to be conversant with problems faced by learners with Basic skills needs, Make use of Outreach classes to negate travel difficulties for the learner, make provision for trained staff to be available to assist at enrolment, and courses should be Publicised widely to increase awareness of availability and options . ïÆ'Ëœ Personal attitudes. The provider should take into account the learner’s experience, and actively stress strengths not weaknesses, manage and present the work in bite-sized chunks, and foster student involvement through the provision of regular reviews of performance, targets should be set through negotiation and agreed, make use of existing interests for student motivation, Staff should be generous in praise and accept and work at the learners pace. The learner should be encouraged to accept ownership of their own learning. 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